The Evolution of Hope in Roman Oratory and Poetry

Introduction

Hope, or spes in Latin, plays a multifaceted role in Roman literature and philosophy. From Cicero’s eloquent speeches to Virgil’s inspiring poetry and Seneca’s Stoic reflections, hope is portrayed in ways that reflect the cultural and intellectual complexities of the age. This article explores how different Roman authors approached hope, bringing out its nuances and philosophical implications.

Hope in oratory and poetry

In Pro C. Rabirio Postumo (54/53 B.C.), Cicero mentions the spes posteritatis (hope of posterity), a concept that goes beyond a mere forecast or vague expectation and represents robust evidence of immortality (Rab. Post. 29). In the Somnium Scipionis, he promises those who devoted themselves to the welfare of the State a place in heaven, where they will be able to enjoy eternal life in happiness (Republic 6, 13). Even in this context, Cicero uses the term certum esse (to be certain) instead of spes, justifying his certainty by reference to God, the supreme ruler of the universe and guardian of the political order (Republic 6, 13; cf. Tusculan Disputations 1, 13; Lactantius, Institutiones Divinae 1, 15; Macrobius, Somnium Scipionis 1, 8, 1).

“Indeed, there we learned the principles of life, and we received not only the way to live with joy, but also a more serene hope in dying.” (Laws 2, 36)

Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue: the song of hope

Virgil’s Fourth Eclogue, often called the “Song of Hope,” was written to celebrate the peace pact between Octavian and Antony (41-40 B.C.). Despite its religious references, the poem is oriented toward a hope for an earthly future with eternal Rome (Ecl. 4, 4f), without mentioning the terms spes or sperare. In the Aeneid, Virgil uses spes more frequently. The hope of an “empire without end” (Aeneid 1, 279) and the journeys of Aeneas, permeated by hope and fear, exemplify this (Aeneid 1, 31; 1, 218; 2, 162; 2, 354). In moments of triumph and of difficulty, spes not only means the expectation of something good (salus), but also stands in contrast to fear, which is the expectation of something bad. In Aeneas and Ascanius, especially with Ascanius described as the “second hope of great Rome” (magnae spes altera Romae), spes becomes a symbol of confidence in the glorious future of Roman civilization.

The philosophical perspective on hope in Virgil, Horace, and Seneca

Virgil employs spes not only in the sense of “confident expectation,” but also as a certainty that excludes doubt (Aeneid 4, 54f), a confidence placed in arms (Aeneid 1, 451f; 2, 162f; 2, 675-678), and even a kind of trust that can be directed to the divinity, though limited to earthly matters (Aeneid 4, 382f; 10, 627).

In keeping with the Stoic ideal of serenity, Horace held that, because of the brevity of life, great expectations made no sense (Odes 1, 4, 15). Instead, he advised facing each day as if it were the last (Odes 1, 4, 15; Epistles 1, 4, 12f). To hope for immortality was, in his view, something even less acceptable (Odes 4, 7, 7f; 1, 11, 6f), reflecting his skepticism toward astrology.

Seneca and the philosophy of the present

Seneca developed a philosophy of life based on the idea that philosophy is the only path to blessedness. He argued that, in order to protect the soul from oscillating between fear and hope, it was essential to avoid unnecessary worry about the future (Letters to Lucilius 5, 6-9; 6, 2; Brev. Vit. 10, 15, 5; Tranq. An. 9, 2, 7; 9, 10, 5). He defined hope as an “expectation of an uncertain good” (Spes enim incerti boni nomen est, Letters 10, 2).

Although his philosophy was profoundly oriented toward the present, Seneca expected men not only to pray to God with courage, but also to respond to others’ requests for help (Letters 10, 4; 48, 7f). He consoled those in suffering by describing death as something natural (Ad Marciam 7, 11/11, 5; 17, 1; 20, 1), which leads to a “great and eternal peace” (magna et aeterna pax), where there is no fear of poverty, no concern for riches, no insatiable desires or envy (Ad Marciam 19, 6; 24, 5; 26, 7).

Seneca, however, avoided using the word spes when referring to the aspiration for eternity, since he held that the term implied an excessively uncertain expectation, incompatible with his philosophical ideal of self-sufficiency and serenity.

Recommended reading: Spe Salvi (Benedict XVI), encyclical on Christian hope.

Deepen your studies: explore Mariology, Marian Theology, Marian apparitions and the Postgraduate Program in Mariology.

Synthesis

Hope in Roman literature and philosophy manifests itself in a complex and multifaceted way. From Cicero and his spes posteritatis to Virgil and his confidence in the eternal empire, passing through the Stoic skepticism of Horace and Seneca’s philosophy of the present, we observe how hope adapts to and reflects the cultural and intellectual dynamics of its time. This evolution shows the depth with which hope permeates human experience, serving both as motivation and as critical reflection on the future and on existence itself.

The Locus Mariologicus Institute is the world’s academic reference in Mariology. Explore our resources on Marian Theology, Marian apparitions and the Postgraduate Program in Mariology.

To deepen the theology of Marian hope, see the Encyclical Redemptoris Mater by Pope John Paul II.